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<title>Halobacterium salinarum</title>

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Halobacterium salinarum

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<th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(195,245,250)">Halobacterium salinarum

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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 88%">Halobacterium salinarum NRC-1 Size bar = 270 nm

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<th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(195,245,250)"><a href="Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Scientific classification</a>

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<td>Domain:

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<td><a href="Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a>

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<td>Kingdom:

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<td><a href="Methanobacteriati" title="Methanobacteriati">Methanobacteriati</a>

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<td>Phylum:

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<td><a href="Methanobacteriota" title="Methanobacteriota">Methanobacteriota</a>

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<td>Class:

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<td><a href="Halobacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Halobacteria">Halobacteria</a>

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<td>Order:

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<td><a href="Halobacteriales" title="Halobacteriales">Halobacteriales</a>

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<td>Family:

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<td><a href="Halobacteriaceae" title="Halobacteriaceae">Halobacteriaceae</a>

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<td>Genus:

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<td><a href="Halobacterium" title="Halobacterium">Halobacterium</a>

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<td>Species:

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<td><div style="display:inline" class="species">H. salinarum</div>

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<th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(195,245,250)"><a href="Binomial_nomenclature" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a>

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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center">Halobacterium salinarum <div style="font-size: 85%;">corrig. (Harrison and Kennedy 1922) Elazari-Volcani 1957</div>

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<th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(195,245,250)"><a href="Synonym_(taxonomy)" title="Synonym (taxonomy)">Synonyms</a>

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Pseudomonas salinaria Harrison and Kennedy 1922 Serratia salinaria (Harrison and Kennedy 1922) Bergey et al. 1923 Flavobacterium (subgen. Halobacterium) salinarium (Harrison and Kennedy 1922) Elazari-volcani 1940 Halobacter salinaria (Harrison and Kennedy 1922) Anderson 1954 Halobacterium salinarium (Harrison and Kennedy 1922) Elazari-Volcani 1957 Halobacterium halobium (Petter 1931) Elazari-Volcani 1957 Halobacterium cutirubrum (Lochhead 1934) Elazari-Volcani 1957

Halobacterium piscialsi (Yachai et al. 2008)<a href="#cite_note-pmid22058320-1">[1]</a>

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</style>Halobacterium salinarum, formerly known as Halobacterium cutirubrum or Halobacterium halobium, is an extremely <a href="Halophile" title="Halophile">halophilic</a> <a href="Ocean" title="Ocean">marine</a> <a href="Obligate_aerobic" class="mw-redirect" title="Obligate aerobic">obligate aerobic</a> archaeon.<a href="#cite_note-MicrobioJ-2">[2]</a> Despite its name, this is not a <a href="Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacterium</a>, but a member of the domain <a href="Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DasSarma-3">[3]</a> It is found in salted fish, <a href="Hide_(skin)" title="Hide (skin)">hides</a>, <a href="Hypersaline_lake" title="Hypersaline lake">hypersaline lakes</a>, and <a href="Saltern" title="Saltern">salterns</a>. As these salterns reach the minimum salinity limits for extreme halophiles, their waters become purple or reddish color due to the high densities of halophilic Archaea.<a href="#cite_note-DasSarma-3">[3]</a> H. salinarum has also been found in high-salt food such as <a href="Salt_pork" title="Salt pork">salt pork</a>, marine fish, and <a href="Sausages" class="mw-redirect" title="Sausages">sausages</a>. The ability of H. salinarum to live at such high salt concentrations has led to its classification as an <a href="Extremophile" title="Extremophile">extremophile</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cell_morphology_and_metabolism">Cell morphology and metabolism</h2></div>

Halobacteria are single-celled, rod-shaped microorganisms that are among the most ancient forms of life and appeared on Earth billions of years ago. The membrane consists of a single <a href="Lipid_bilayer" title="Lipid bilayer">lipid bilayer</a> surrounded by an <a href="S-layer" title="S-layer">S-layer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ng-4">[4]</a> The S-layer is made of a cell-surface <a href="Glycoprotein" title="Glycoprotein">glycoprotein</a> that accounts for approximately 50% of the cell surface <a href="Proteins" class="mw-redirect" title="Proteins">proteins</a>.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> These proteins form a lattice in the membrane. Sulfate residues are abundant on the <a href="Glycan" title="Glycan">glycan</a> chains of the glycoprotein, giving it a negative charge. The negative charge is believed to stabilize the lattice in high-salt conditions.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a>

<a href="Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acids</a> are the main source of chemical energy for H. salinarum, particularly <a href="Arginine" title="Arginine">arginine</a> and <a href="Aspartate" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspartate">aspartate</a>, though they are able to metabolize other amino acids, as well.<a href="#cite_note-Ng-4">[4]</a> H. salinarum have been reported to be unable to grow on sugars, and therefore need to encode enzymes capable of performing <a href="Gluconeogenesis" title="Gluconeogenesis">gluconeogenesis</a> to create sugars. Although H. salinarum is unable to catabolize glucose, the <a href="Transcription_factor" title="Transcription factor">transcription factor</a> TrmB has been proven to regulate the gluconeogenic production of sugars found on the S-layer glycoprotein.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Adaptation_to_extreme_conditions">Adaptation to extreme conditions</h2></div>

To survive in extremely salty environments, this archaeon—as with other halophilic Archaeal species—utilizes <a href="Compatible_solutes" class="mw-redirect" title="Compatible solutes">compatible solutes</a> (in particular, <a href="Potassium_chloride" title="Potassium chloride">potassium chloride</a>) to reduce osmotic stress.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Potassium levels are not at <a href="Diffusion_equilibrium" class="mw-redirect" title="Diffusion equilibrium">equilibrium</a> with the environment, so H. salinarum express multiple <a href="Active_transport" title="Active transport">active transporters</a> that pump potassium into the cell.<a href="#cite_note-Ng-4">[4]</a>

At extremely high salt concentrations, <a href="Protein_precipitation" title="Protein precipitation">protein precipitation</a> will occur. To prevent the salting out of proteins, H. salinarum encodes mainly acidic proteins. The average <a href="Isoelectric_point" title="Isoelectric point">isoelectric point</a> of H. salinarum proteins is 5.03.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> These highly acidic proteins are overwhelmingly negative in charge and are able to remain in solution even at high salt concentrations.<a href="#cite_note-DasSarma-3">[3]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Low_oxygen_and_phototrophy">Low oxygen and phototrophy</h3></div>

H. salinarum can grow to such densities in salt ponds that oxygen is quickly depleted. Though it is an <a href="Obligate_aerobe" title="Obligate aerobe">obligate aerobe</a>, it is able to survive in low-oxygen conditions by utilizing <a href="Light_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Light energy">light energy</a>. H. salinarum expresses the membrane protein <a href="Bacteriorhodopsin" title="Bacteriorhodopsin">bacteriorhodopsin</a>,<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> which acts as a light-driven proton pump. It consists of two parts: the 7-transmembrane protein, bacterioopsin, and the light-sensitive cofactor, <a href="Retinal" title="Retinal">retinal</a>. Upon absorption of a <a href="Photon" title="Photon">photon</a>, retinal changes its conformation, causing a conformational change in the bacterioopsin protein, as well, which drives proton transport.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> The proton gradient formed thereby can then be used to generate chemical energy via <a href="ATP_synthase" title="ATP synthase">ATP synthase</a>.

To obtain more oxygen, H. salinarum produce gas vesicles, which allow them to float to the surface where oxygen levels are higher and more light is available.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> These vesicles are complex structures made of proteins encoded by at least 14 genes.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Gas vesicles were first discovered in H. salinarum in 1967.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="UV_protection_and_color">UV protection and color</h3></div>

There is little protection from the Sun in salt ponds, so H. salinarum are often exposed to high amounts of <a href="Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">UV</a> radiation. To compensate, they have evolved a sophisticated <a href="DNA_repair" title="DNA repair">DNA repair</a> mechanism. The genome encodes DNA repair enzymes homologous to those in both bacteria and eukaryotes.<a href="#cite_note-DasSarma-3">[3]</a> This allows H. salinarum to repair damage to DNA faster and more efficiently than other organisms and allows them to be much more UV-tolerant.

Its red color is due primarily to the presence of <a href="Bacterioruberin" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterioruberin">bacterioruberin</a>, a 50 carbon <a href="Carotenoid" title="Carotenoid">carotenoid</a> Alcohol (<a href="Polyol" title="Polyol">polyol</a>) pigment present within the membrane of H. salinarum. The primary role of bacterioruberin in the cell is to protect against <a href="DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> damage incurred by UV light.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> This protection is not, however, due to the ability of bacterioruberin to absorb UV light. Bacterioruberin protects the DNA by acting as an <a href="Antioxidant" title="Antioxidant">antioxidant</a>, rather than directly blocking UV light.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> It is able to protect the cell from <a href="Reactive_oxygen_species" title="Reactive oxygen species">reactive oxygen species</a> produced from exposure to UV by acting as a target. The bacterioruberin <a href="Radical_(chemistry)" title="Radical (chemistry)">radical</a> produced is less reactive than the initial radical, and will likely react with another radical, resulting in termination of the radical chain reaction.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a>

H. salinarum has been found to be responsible for the bright pink or red appearance of some bodies of <a href="Hypersaline_lake" title="Hypersaline lake">hypersaline lakes</a>, including <a href="Pink_lake" title="Pink lake">pink lakes</a>, such as the lake in <a href="Melbourne" title="Melbourne">Melbourne</a>'s <a href="Westgate_Park" title="Westgate Park">Westgate Park</a>; with the exact colour of the lake depending on the balance between the alga <a href="Dunaliella_salina" title="Dunaliella salina">Dunaliella salina</a> and H. salinarium, with salt concentration having a direct impact.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> However, recent studies at <a href="Lake_Hillier" title="Lake Hillier">Lake Hillier</a> in <a href="Western_Australia" title="Western Australia">Western Australia</a> have shown that other bacteria, notably <a href="Salinibacter_ruber" title="Salinibacter ruber">Salinibacter ruber</a>, along with algal and other factors, cause the pink color of these lakes.<a href="#cite_note-Salleh_2022-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-discovery-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-outback-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-cassella-24">[24]</a> The researchers found 10 species of halophilic bacteria and archaea as well as several species of <a href="Dunaliella" title="Dunaliella">Dunaliella</a> algae, nearly all of which contain some pink, red or <a href="Salmon_(color)" title="Salmon (color)">salmon-coloured</a> pigment.<a href="#cite_note-outback-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-discovery-22">[22]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Protection_against_ionizing_radiation_and_desiccation">Protection against ionizing radiation and desiccation</h3></div>

H. salinarum is <a href="Polyploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyploid">polyploid</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid21265763-25">[25]</a> and highly resistant to <a href="Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a> and <a href="Desiccation" title="Desiccation">desiccation</a>, conditions that induce <a href="DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> double-strand breaks.<a href="#cite_note-pmid15844015-26">[26]</a> Although chromosomes are initially shattered into many fragments, complete <a href="Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a> are regenerated by making use of over-lapping fragments. Regeneration occurs by a process involving DNA <a href="Single-stranded_binding_protein" title="Single-stranded binding protein">single-stranded binding protein</a> and is likely a form of <a href="Homologous_recombination" title="Homologous recombination">homologous recombinational</a> repair.<a href="#cite_note-pmid17903038-27">[27]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genome">Genome</h2></div>

Whole genome sequences are available for two strains of H. salinarum, NRC-1<a href="#cite_note-Ng-4">[4]</a> and R1.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> The Halobacterium sp. NRC-1 genome consists of 2,571,010 base pairs on one large chromosome and two mini-chromosomes. The genome encodes 2,360 predicted proteins.<a href="#cite_note-Ng-4">[4]</a> The large chromosome is very G-C rich (68%).<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> High <a href="GC-content" title="GC-content">GC-content</a> of the genome increases stability in extreme environments.

Whole <a href="Proteome" title="Proteome">proteome</a> comparisons show the definite archaeal nature of this halophile with additional similarities to the Gram-positive <a href="Bacillus_subtilis" title="Bacillus subtilis">Bacillus subtilis</a> and other bacteria.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="As_a_model_organism">As a model organism</h2></div>

H. salinarum is as easy to culture as <a href="Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">E. coli</a> and serves as an excellent model system. Methods for gene replacement and systematic <a href="Gene_knockout" title="Gene knockout">knockout</a> have been developed,<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> so H. salinarum is an ideal candidate for the study of archaeal genetics and <a href="Functional_genomics" title="Functional genomics">functional genomics</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="For_hydrogen_production">For hydrogen production</h2></div>

<a href="Hydrogen_production" title="Hydrogen production">Hydrogen production</a> using H. salinarum coupled to a hydrogenase donor like E. coli are reported in literature.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Claimed_antiquity_of_DNA_samples">Claimed antiquity of DNA samples</h2></div>

In the 1990s there were claims that DNA samples from Halobacteria from salt formations were millions of years old. Later analysis was unable to replicate the findings.<a href="#cite_note-PääboPoinar2004-32">[32]</a>

Then in 2009 it was claimed that a sample of a close genetic relative of H. salinarum encapsulated in salt allowed for the recovery of <a href="Ancient_DNA" title="Ancient DNA">ancient DNA</a> fragments estimated at 121 million years old.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> The curing salt had been derived from a mine in <a href="Saskatchewan" title="Saskatchewan">Saskatchewan</a>, the site of the most recent sample described by Jong Soo Park of <a href="Dalhousie_University" title="Dalhousie University">Dalhousie University</a> in <a href="Halifax_Regional_Municipality" class="mw-redirect" title="Halifax Regional Municipality">Halifax</a>, Nova Scotia, Canada.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Russell Vreeland of Ancient Biomaterials Institute of <a href="West_Chester_University" title="West Chester University">West Chester University</a> in <a href="Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>, USA, performed an analysis of all known types of halophilic bacteria, which yielded the finding that Park's bacteria contained six segments of <a href="DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> never seen before in halophiles. Vreeland also tracked down the buffalo skin and determined that the salt came from the same mine as Park's sample. He also claimed to discover a <a href="Halophile" title="Halophile">halophile</a> estimated at 250 million years old in <a href="New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> However, his findings date the crystal surrounding the bacteria, and DNA analysis suggests the bacteria themselves are likely to be less ancient.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a>

In 2022, a study in <a href="Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a> reported that two-million year old preserved genetic material from many species was found in Greenland, and these sequences are currently considered the oldest confirmed DNA discovered, of any species.<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20221207-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-NAT-20221207-38">[38]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFMinegishiEchigoShimaneKamekura2012" class="citation journal cs1">Minegishi H, Echigo A, Shimane Y, Kamekura M, Tanasupawat S, Visessanguan W, Usami R (September 2012). "Halobacterium piscisalsi Yachai et al. 2008 is a later heterotypic synonym of Halobacterium salinarum Elazari-Volcani 1957". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 62 (Pt 9): 2160–2162. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1099%2Fijs.0.036905-0">10.1099/ijs.0.036905-0</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22058320">22058320</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-MicrobioJ-2"><a href="#cite_ref-MicrobioJ_2-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFEichler2023" class="citation journal cs1">Eichler J (April 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10202317">"Halobacterium salinarum: Life with more than a grain of salt"</a>. Microbiology. 169 (4): 001327. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1099%2Fmic.0.001327">10.1099/mic.0.001327</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10202317">10202317</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37068123">37068123</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-DasSarma-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DasSarma_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DasSarma_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DasSarma_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DasSarma_3-3">d</a> <cite id="CITEREFDassarma2007" class="citation journal cs1">Dassarma, Shiladitya (2007). "Extreme Microbes". American Scientist. 95 (3): 224. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1511%2F2007.65.224">10.1511/2007.65.224</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFReilly,_MichaelThe_Discovery_Channel" class="citation web cs1">Reilly, Michael; The Discovery Channel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200923230747/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/34467577">"World's oldest known DNA discovered"</a>. <a href="NBC_News" title="NBC News">NBC News</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nbcnews.com/id/34467577">the original</a> on September 23, 2020. Retrieved 3 September 2010.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFPark,_J._S.Vreeland,_R._H.Cho,_B._C.Lowenstein,_T._K.2009" class="citation journal cs1">Park, J. S.; Vreeland, R. H.; Cho, B. C.; Lowenstein, T. K.; Timofeeff, M. N. & Rosenweig, W. D. (December 2009). "Haloarchaeal diversity in 23, 121 and 419 MYA salts". Geobiology. 7 (5): 515–23. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009Gbio....7..515P">2009Gbio....7..515P</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1472-4669.2009.00218.x">10.1111/j.1472-4669.2009.00218.x</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19849725">19849725</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFVreeland,_HRosenzweig,_W_DLowenstein,_TSatterfield,_C2006" class="citation journal cs1">Vreeland, H; Rosenzweig, W D; Lowenstein, T; Satterfield, C; Ventosa, A (December 2006). "Fatty acid and DNA analyses of Permian bacteria isolated from ancient salt crystals reveal differences from their modern relatives". Extremophiles. 10 (1): 71–8. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00792-005-0474-z">10.1007/s00792-005-0474-z</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16133658">16133658</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:25102006">25102006</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGraurPupko2001" class="citation journal cs1">Graur, Dan; Pupko, Tal (2001-02-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordjournals.molbev.a003887">"The Permian Bacterium that Isn't"</a>. Molecular Biology and Evolution. 18 (6). Oxford Journals: 1143–1146. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordjournals.molbev.a003887">10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a003887</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11371604">11371604</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-NYT-20221207-37"><a href="#cite_ref-NYT-20221207_37-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFZimmer2022" class="citation news cs1"><a href="Carl_Zimmer" title="Carl Zimmer">Zimmer C</a> (7 December 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/07/science/oldest-dna-greenland-species.html">"Oldest Known DNA Offers Glimpse of a Once-Lush Arctic - In Greenland's permafrost, scientists discovered two-million-year-old genetic material from scores of plant and animal species, including mastodons, geese, lemmings and ants"</a>. <a href="The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. Retrieved 7 December 2022.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-NAT-20221207-38"><a href="#cite_ref-NAT-20221207_38-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKjærWinther_PedersenDe_SanctisDe_Cahsan2022" class="citation journal cs1">Kjær KH, Winther Pedersen M, De Sanctis B, De Cahsan B, Korneliussen TS, Michelsen CS, Sand KK, Jelavić S, Ruter AH, Schmidt AM, Kjeldsen KK, Tesakov AS, Snowball I, Gosse JC, Alsos IG, Wang Y, Dockter C, Rasmussen M, Jørgensen ME, Skadhauge B, Prohaska A, Kristensen JÅ, Bjerager M, Allentoft ME, Coissac E, Rouillard A, Simakova A, Fernandez-Guerra A, Bowler C, Macias-Fauria M, Vinner L, Welch JJ, Hidy AJ, Sikora M, Collins MJ, Durbin R, Larsen NK, Willerslev E (December 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9729109">"A 2-million-year-old ecosystem in Greenland uncovered by environmental DNA"</a>. Nature. 612 (7939): 283–291. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022Natur.612..283K">2022Natur.612..283K</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-022-05453-y">10.1038/s41586-022-05453-y</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9729109">9729109</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36477129">36477129</a>.</cite>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFHoriaDulmageGillumBain2014" class="citation journal cs1">Horia, Todor; Dulmage, Keely; Gillum, Nicholas; Bain, James; Muehlbauer, Michael; Schmid, Amy (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fmmi.12726">"A transcription factor links growth rate and metabolism in the hypersaline adapted archaeon Halobacterium salinarum"</a>. Molecular Microbiology. 93 (6): 1172–1182. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fmmi.12726">10.1111/mmi.12726</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25060603">25060603</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKahakiBabaeipourMemariMofid2014" class="citation journal cs1">Kahaki, Fatemeh Abarghooi; Babaeipour, Valiollah; Memari, Hamid Rajabi; Mofid, Mohammad Reza (2014). "High Overexpression and Purification of Optimized Bacterio-Opsin from Halobacterium Salinarum R1 in E-coli". Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology. 174 (4): 1558–1571. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12010-014-1137-2">10.1007/s12010-014-1137-2</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25123363">25123363</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7403305">7403305</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bacdive.dsmz.de/index.php?search=5912&submit=Search">Type strain of Halobacterium salinarum at BacDive - the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Salt249" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Salt" title="Salt">Salt</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="History_of_salt" title="History of salt">History</a></li>

<li><a href="Salt_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Salt in the American Civil War">In the American Civil War</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Salt_Co._v._United_States" title="International Salt Co. v. United States">International Salt Co. v. United States</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_salt_in_Middlewich" title="History of salt in Middlewich">In Middlewich</a></li>

<li><a href="Old_Salt_Route" title="Old Salt Route">Old Salt Route</a></li>

<li><a href="Salt_in_Chinese_history" title="Salt in Chinese history">In Chinese history</a></li>

<li><a href="Salt_March" title="Salt March">Salt March</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_edible_salts" title="List of edible salts">Types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abraum_salts" title="Abraum salts">Abraum</a></li>

<li><a href="Alaea_salt" title="Alaea salt">Alaea</a></li>

<li><a href="Alberger_process" title="Alberger process">Alberger</a></li>

<li><a href="As%C3%ADn_tibuok" title="Asín tibuok">Asín tibuok</a></li>

<li><a href="Bittern_(salt)" title="Bittern (salt)">Bittern</a></li>

<li><a href="Sea_salt" title="Sea salt">Black lava</a></li>

<li><a href="Butter_salt" title="Butter salt">Butter</a></li>

<li><a href="Calcium_chloride" title="Calcium chloride">Calcium chloride</a></li>

<li><a href="Celery_salt" title="Celery salt">Celery</a></li>

<li><a href="Curing_salt" title="Curing salt">Curing</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyclic_salt" title="Cyclic salt">Cyclic</a></li>

<li><a href="Dairy_salt" title="Dairy salt">Dairy</a></li>

<li><a href="Flake_salt" title="Flake salt">Flake</a></li>

<li><a href="Fleur_de_sel" title="Fleur de sel">Fleur de sel</a></li>

<li><a href="Garlic_salt" title="Garlic salt">Garlic</a></li>

<li><a href="Himalayan_salt" title="Himalayan salt">Himalayan</a></li>

<li><a href="Iodised_salt" title="Iodised salt">Iodised</a></li>

<li><a href="Jugyeom" class="mw-redirect" title="Jugyeom">Jugyeom</a></li>

<li><a href="Kala_namak" title="Kala namak">Kala namak</a></li>

<li><a href="Korean_brining_salt" title="Korean brining salt">Korean brining</a></li>

<li><a href="Kosher_salt" title="Kosher salt">Kosher</a></li>

<li><a href="Monosodium_glutamate" title="Monosodium glutamate">Monosodium glutamate</a></li>

<li><a href="Moshio_salt" title="Moshio salt">Moshio salt</a></li>

<li><a href="Pickling_salt" title="Pickling salt">Pickling</a></li>

<li><a href="Potassium_chloride" title="Potassium chloride">Potassium chloride</a></li>

<li><a href="Potassium_nitrate" title="Potassium nitrate">Potassium nitrate</a></li>

<li><a href="River_reed_salt" title="River reed salt">River reed salt</a></li>

<li><a href="Sodium_nitrate" title="Sodium nitrate">Sodium nitrate</a></li>

<li><a href="Onion_powder#Onion_salt" title="Onion powder">Onion</a></li>

<li><a href="Salammoniac" title="Salammoniac">Salammoniac</a></li>

<li><a href="Salt_substitute" title="Salt substitute">Salt substitute</a></li>

<li><a href="Seasoned_salt" title="Seasoned salt">Seasoned</a></li>

<li><a href="Smoked_salt" title="Smoked salt">Smoked</a></li>

<li><a href="Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">Sodium chloride</a></li>

<li><a href="Truffle_salt" class="mw-redirect" title="Truffle salt">Truffle</a></li>

<li><a href="Asin_tibuok" class="mw-redirect" title="Asin tibuok">Túltul</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Food usage</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Brining" title="Brining">Brining</a></li>

<li><a href="Salting_(food)" title="Salting (food)">Salting</a></li>

<li><a href="Brined_cheese" title="Brined cheese">Brined cheese</a></li>

<li><a href="Salt-cured_meat" class="mw-redirect" title="Salt-cured meat">Salt-cured meat</a></li>

<li><a href="Salted_fish" title="Salted fish">Salted fish</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_effects_of_salt" title="Health effects of salt">Health effects</a></li>

<li><a href="Salt_and_cardiovascular_disease" title="Salt and cardiovascular disease">Salt and cardiovascular disease</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Commerce and industry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Salt_Commission" title="Salt Commission">Salt Industry Commission</a></li>

<li><a href="Salt_evaporation_pond" title="Salt evaporation pond">Evaporation pond</a></li>

<li><a href="Salt_mining" title="Salt mining">Salt mining</a></li>

<li><a href="Sink_works" title="Sink works">Sink works</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-pan_salt_making" title="Open-pan salt making">Open-pan salt making</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_salt_production" title="List of countries by salt production">List of countries by salt production</a></li>

<li><a href="Salt_tectonics" title="Salt tectonics">Salt tectonics</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Salt_in_Cheshire" title="Salt in Cheshire">Cheshire</a></li>

<li><a href="Salt_industry_in_Ghana" title="Salt industry in Ghana">Ghana</a></li>

<li><a href="San_Francisco_Bay_Salt_Ponds" title="San Francisco Bay Salt Ponds">San Francisco Bay</a></li>

<li><a href="Khewra_Salt_Mine" title="Khewra Salt Mine">Pakistan</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Grain_of_salt" class="mw-redirect" title="Grain of salt">Grain of salt</a></li>

<li><a href="Salt_in_the_Bible" title="Salt in the Bible">Salt in the Bible</a></li>

<li><a href="Salting_the_earth" title="Salting the earth">Salting the earth</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Mineral_lick" title="Mineral lick">Mineral lick</a></li>

<li><a href="Smelling_salts" title="Smelling salts">Smelling salts</a></li>

<li><a href="Water_softening" title="Water softening">Water softening</a></li>

<li><a href="Ximenes_Redoubt" title="Ximenes Redoubt">Ximenes Redoubt</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> Category</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Taxon_identifiers2228" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Taxon_identifiers2228" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Taxon identifiers</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;">Halobacterium salinarum</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a>: <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3782756" class="extiw external" title="wikidata:Q3782756">Q3782756</a></li>

<li><a href="Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a>: <a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Halobacterium_salinarum" class="extiw external" title="wikispecies:Halobacterium salinarum">Halobacterium salinarum</a></li>

<li><a href="BacDive" title="BacDive">BacDive</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bacdive.dsmz.de/strain/5912">5912</a></li>

<li><a href="INaturalist" title="INaturalist">iNaturalist</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inaturalist.org/taxa/362804">362804</a></li>

<li><a href="Interim_Register_of_Marine_and_Nonmarine_Genera" title="Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera">IRMNG</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irmng.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=10466321">10466321</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Prokaryotic_names_with_Standing_in_Nomenclature" title="List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature">LPSN</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lpsn.dsmz.de/species/halobacterium-salinarum">halobacterium-salinarum</a></li>

<li>SeqCode Registry: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://seqco.de/i:8829">8829</a></li></ul>

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This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-07-29" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Halobacterium_salinarum&oldid=1303095534">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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